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The Three Kingdoms

Traditionally, the early history of Korea begins with the Three Kingdoms: Shilla (57 BC-AD 935), Koguryo (37 BC-AD 668), and Paekche (18 BC-660 AD).

The city-state of Koguryo was originally located in the north of the Korean Peninsula. Koguryo troops conquered tribe after neighboring tribe until, by the 4th century, they had expanded northward into Manchuria. Koguryo was therefore heavily influenced by China and Buddhism.

Apparently, not all citizens of Koguryo were happy with its proclivities for war. Paekche was established by refugees from Koguryo in the southwest corner of the peninsula, close to the site of present-day Seoul. Paekche expanded southward and set up a trading relationship with China.

Shilla, initially the least culturally developed of the Three Kingdoms, proved to be the strongest. With the help of the Chinese Tang dynasty, Shilla armies vanquished both Koguryo and Paekche and unified the peninsula. During the Unified Shilla period (668-936), the country prospered, reaching its peak around the middle of the 8th century. The capital at what is now Kyongju had an estimated 1 million inhabitants at this time, and great advances were recorded in science, philosophy, and architecture. Magnificent monuments to Buddhism can still be seen in this area.

The Koryo Kingdom

Infighting and weakening of the aristocracy caused the Shilla dynasty to lose power after the 8th century. Its capital was sacked in the year 927, and power fell to the Koryo kingdom (936-1392), established north of the Han River.

Korea takes its name from Koryo. The legacy of Koryo can also be seen in its renowned blue-green celadon ware, the world's first movable metal type (in 1234), and the Tripitaka Koreana-81,358 wooden blocks on which the Buddhist scriptures have been carved, commissioned during the 13th century by King Kojong as an invocation for Buddha's help in repelling Mongol invaders. The Tripitaka, among the country's most important National Treasures, are now housed in the Haein-sa Temple near Taegu.

The Choson Dynasty

Koryo yielded to the Choson, or Yi, dynasty in 1392. The Yi ruled for more than 500 years, choosing Seoul as their capital. During that period, Confucianism replaced Buddhism as the dominant force. In the 15th century, under King Sejong, culture and the arts flowered, culminating in the invention of the Hangul (the Korean alphabet) and numerous advances in political systems, the natural sciences, humanities, and medicine.

In the latter part of the Yi dynasty, China and Japan sought control of Korea-a struggle effectively won by Japan. By 1592, Japanese armies were trampling the Korean peninsula en route to conquering China. However, General Yi and his iron-clad turtle-shaped vessels drove the Japanese back across the sea. Having barely recovered from repulsing unwanted guests in the southern flank, the Koreans turned northward to watch the Manchu armies invade in 1627 and 1636.

When peace was finally achieved, the country retreated into itself, earning itself the nickname "the hermit kingdom." Korea remained secluded until 1876, when ports were opened (reluctantly) to Japan. In 1882 Korea and the United States signed a friendship and commerce treaty. This was followed by similar treaties with European nations.

The Turmoil of the 20th Century

The 20th century has not been kind to Korea. The Japanese annexed the peninsula in 1910. Until 1945, the Japanese occupied the country, and the Korean people were forced to abnegate their own national language, characteristics, and culture. In addition, the natural resources of Korea were redirected to Japan and to Japanese immigrants in Korea.

World War II (1939-45) ended Japanese domination of Korea but did not bring serenity to the Land of the Morning Calm. After the war, the USSR entered Korea from the north, and the United States entered from the south, to accept the surrender of Japanese troops. The peninsula was accordingly divided at the 38th parallel into two administrative zones. After attempts to hold nationwide elections failed, a pro-Western government was established in the south.

In June 1950, North Korean troops invaded South Korea, triggering a three-year war. The United States and the United Nations sent troops to support South Korea. Concerned that war might spill into Chinese territory, China sent troops to aid North Korea. The war ravaged the peninsula and ended in a stalemate (a peace treaty has still not been signed), with the original border virtually unchanged. Violent border incidents have occurred over the years, and a monthly civil defense drill is still conducted in South Korea.

The mid-1980s saw increasingly violent demonstrations against the military's domination of politics, and in 1987 a new constitution established direct presidential elections and protection of human rights. It was not until 1992, however, that full, free elections were held without military involvement. After the presidential election the following year, Kim Young Sam became the first civilian to occupy the presidential mansion in more than 30 years.

In 1990, peace talks were held between the prime ministers of North and South Korea, the first such contact since the 1950s. While the two did not reconcile their differences, they did agree to continue meeting in an effort to reduce tensions, open relations, and possibly start unification. In 1992 North and South Korea agreed to mutual inspections of nuclear installations, but in 1994 allegations about North Korea's possible nuclear-weapons development program strained relations with South Korea.

In June 1994 North and South Korea agreed to hold high-level talks. Although the death of North Korea's president the following month interfered with the talks, a pact signed between North Korea and the United States in October dissipated tensions between the international community and North Korea regarding its alleged nuclear weapons program. As part of the pact, North Korea agreed to take steps toward resuming high-level talks with South Korea. Meetings between the U.S. and North Korea in June of 1995 have further outlined goals for defining the relationship between the north and south and creating a unified Korea.